It would be difficult to overstate the importance of the book of Isaiah on the formation of Christian doctrine. Isaiah is the book quoted second-most often by the New Testament authors (only the Psalms are quoted more often), but I wouldn’t be surprised if Isaiah surpassed the Psalms in the sheer number of off-hand allusions.
Just think: Without Isaiah, we wouldn’t have Immanuel, a voice crying in the wilderness, the sting of death, the root of Jesse, proclamation of good news to the poor, a bruised reed he will not break, light for the Gentiles, every knee shall bow, how beautiful are the feet that bring good news, go out from their midst, a house of prayer, or the earth is my footstool. Without Isaiah, we wouldn’t have a breastplate of righteousness, helmet of salvation, new heavens and new earth, he gave himself for our sins, by his wounds you are healed, the suffering servant, a ransom for many, the Lamb who takes away the sin of the world, the many will be made righteous, unquenchable fire, being taught of God, blessings of David, a remnant shall be saved, found by those who didn’t seek me, a spirit of stupor, the wisdom of the wise, eye has not seen, ear has not heard, speak in strange tongues, the breath of his mouth, feeble hands and weak knees, feet swift to shed blood, clay in the hands of a potter, lest tomorrow we die, the acceptable time, the day of salvation, God supplies rain and seed, a precious cornerstone, owning a vineyard and expecting it bear fruit, you are my witnesses, I am the first and the last, the skies roll up like a scroll, robe stained in blood, no hunger or thirst, wipe away every tear, the children God has given me, or behold your God!
Isaiah is central to the Christian faith. It is worth your time to grasp its message.
Literary Markers
The clearest literary shift in this lengthy book is the switch from poetry (Isaiah 1-35) to narrative (Isaiah 36-39) and back to poetry (Isaiah 40-66). Brief narrative portions occurs elsewhere (chapters 6-7, 20, etc.), but not nearly on the same scale as the large block of chapters 36-39.
Within the first division (chapters 1-35), Isaiah marks the opening prophecies with headings (Isaiah 1:1, 2:1). But we don’t get any other headings until Isaiah 13:1, 14:28, 15:1, etc., where they are concentrated until Is 26:1. Then we don’t see such headings for the remainder of the book. This shows that chapters 13-27 are arranged together as a collection (of judgments on the nations of the world). Therefore, the opening division has three main sections: Isaiah 1-12, 13-27, and 28-35. The people are living under the kings of Judah, surrounded by enemies such as Assyria, and the narratives of Is 36-39 fit within this setting.
However, beginning at chapter 40, the audience appears to be exiles awaiting restoration (e.g. Is 40:1-3). And beginning at chapter 56, the audience appears to be back in the land with a temple (e.g. Is 56:5-7). This leads many academics to theorize three authors for the book, from three time periods (kingdom, exile, restoration), but such a conclusion is necessary only if you reject out of hand the possibility that God’s prophets are able to speak, well, prophetically. We are justified, however, in treating Is 40-55 and Is 56-66 as discrete sections of the book.
Within the first of those sections, Is 40 introduces two issues (Israel’s warfare with Babylon and her sin against God). The following chapters resolve the warfare with Babylon in Is 40-48 and the sin against God in Is 49-55.
This analysis yields the following rough outline of sections:
- Isaiah 1-35
- 1-12
- 13-27
- 28-35
- 36-39
- Isaiah 40-55
- 40-48
- 49-55
- Isaiah 56-66
Let’s walk through the argument of each part.
Walkthrough Part 1
Chapter sets the stage for the rest of the book. Yahweh makes a case against his people (Is 1:1-15): His children have rebelled against them. Then he makes them an offer (Is 1:16-31): Trust him and be cleansed, or trust in false gods and become tinder for the fire. The rest of the book will unpack these fundamental ideas: How have God’s children turned away from him? How could he make cleansing possible for them? What happens to those who hold fast to the wrong gods?
Chapters 2-5 alternate between visions of a glorious future for the faithful and evidence of condemnation for the unfaithful. This culminates in Isaiah’s cleansing and commission (chapter 6) to preach to those who will become as senseless as their deaf and blind idols. Is 7:1-9:7 reveals that the way God will be able to be with his people is through an appointed king who will establish David’s throne in justice and righteousness. In Is 9:8-11:16, Yahweh pleads with his people to turn from their ways and set their hope in this coming king, the root of Jesse, upon whom will rest Yahweh’s own Spirit. Chapter 12 caps off this section with a celebration of God’s glorious provision of salvation.
Chapters 13-27 recount God’s attitude of judgment on the nations. Isaiah presents the oracles in three cycles of five judgments each.
- Cycle 1: Babylon, Philistia, Moab, Damascus, Egypt (Is 13-20)
- Cycle 2: Wilderness of the sea, Dumah, Arabia, Valley of vision, Tyre (Is 21-23)
- Cycle 3: The wasted city, the host of heaven, the mountain of Yahweh, the strong city, Leviathan and the fortified city (Is 24-27)
As you can see, each cycle gets increasingly abstract and apocalyptic (symbolic) in its language. But Judah herself is not exempt from judgment, even when she is the location of glorious salvation (chapters 22, 25, 27).
Chapters 28-35 highlight the failure of all earthly powers to either save or judge in truth. This section is structured by six “woes” (“ah” and “woe” in the ESV translate the same Hebrew word – Is 28:1, 29:1, 29:15, 30:1, 31:1, 33:1). The first three woes explain the principles: False gods will fail; nothing can deliver those who reject Yahweh and his word; nothing can compare in power to Yahweh. The second three woes apply those principles in Judah’s historical moment: Egypt will fail; neither Egypt nor Assyria can deliver those who reject Yahweh and his word; neither Egypt nor Assyria can compare in power to Yahweh.
Everything Isaiah has spoken to this point finds its climax in the narratives of chapters 36-39, where we see a great king of Judah (Is 36:1) being challenged by a great king of Assyria (Is 36:4), yet Judah’s king will not relinquish his hold on an even higher king to deliver him (Is 37:16-17). He recognizes that false gods will fail (Is 37:18-20). Even on his sickbed, he continues trusting Yahweh (Is 38:20). That is, until the Assyrian threat passes and Babylon comes on the scene … (Is 39:1-2, 6). This narrative thus transitions us into the new need of a new generation: Rescue from exile in Babylon.
In short, the message of Part 1 (1-39) of Isaiah is: It is Yahweh alone who judges and delivers, and he does so through his appointed King.
Walkthrough Part 2
Part 2 open with words of comfort to the exiles (Is 40:1). Yet this comfort runs far deeper than they might expect. Not only will their warfare with Babylon come to an end. Their iniquity before God also must find pardon.
Comfort, comfort my people, says your God.
Isaiah 40:1-2
Speak tenderly to Jerusalem,
and cry to her
that her warfare is ended,
that her iniquity is pardoned,
that she has received from Yahweh’s hand
double for all her sins
Part 2 takes up these matters, showing in great detail just how they could come to pass.
First, Isaiah addresses the end of warfare with Babylon (the end of exile). In chapter 40, he describes Yahweh as both able and willing to make these things happen. In chapter 41, he enumerates the ramifications of this rescue on the coastlands and nations of the world. In chapter 42, he leaks God’s plan to send a servant to bring forth justice. In chapters 43-44, he ties the exile closely to the people’s rank idolatry, such that rescue from the first must simultaneously involve rescue from the latter. Chapters 45-48 then show how God will raise Cyrus as his anointed, to defeat Babylon and trample on Babylon’s impotent gods. The section culminates in demonstration of God’s loving justice (Isaiah 47) and his just love (Isaiah 48). There is no other god like this God.
Second, Isaiah must deal with the deeper, inward issue of their sin against God. Through his literary masterpiece, he weaves together a number of threads, including the coming servant, songs of deliverance, irrational hope, and the God who covenants to make it all possible. The tension builds through a crescendo of double repetition—”awake, awake” (Is 51:9), “I, I” (Is 51:12), “wake yourself, wake yourself” (Is 51:17), “awake, awake” (Is 52:1), “depart, depart” (Is 52:11)—before it explodes into the magnificent hymn of praise to the coming, tragic servant (Is 52:13-53:12). This leads the people to burst out in song and to expect the impossible from here on out (Is 54-55).
In short, we see in Part 2 that Yahweh is both willing and able to judge and deliver through his Servant.
Walkthrough Part 3
Part 3 of Isaiah presents itself as a single unit with a coherent structure:
- Outcasts are gathered – Is 56:1-8
- God’s people still need a lot of work – Is 56:90-59:8
- Prayer of repentance – Is 59:9-13
- Yahweh himself suits up to do for them what they can’t do for themselves – Is 59:14-21
- The vision of all that Israel and Jerusalem could become – Is 60-62
- Yahweh himself crushes all opponents to this vision – Is 63:1-6
- Yahweh himself suits up to do for them what they can’t do for themselves – Is 59:14-21
- Prayer of repentance – Is 63:7-64:12
- Prayer of repentance – Is 59:9-13
- God’s people still need a lot of work – Is 65:1-66:17
- God’s people still need a lot of work – Is 56:90-59:8
- Many gathered in, and some cast out – Is 66:18-24
In short, Yahweh’s deliverance brings a new world through his Conqueror.
No Hope But Jesus
No wonder Jesus could read Isaiah 61 in the Galilean synagogue and tell them these words were fulfilled that very day (Luke 4:16-21). No wonder the Scripture of Isaiah 53 must be fulfilled in him (Luke 22:37). Jesus alone is the true King, Servant, and Conqueror Isaiah said we would need. Through him, deliverance is possible, from both sin and warfare. And judgment is certain for those who resist him (2 Thess 1:5-10).
Interpretive Outline
- It is Yahweh alone who judges and delivers through his King – Is 1-39
- Charge of rebellion, offer of cleansing – Is 1-12
- Judgment on all nations – Is 13-27
- Failure of earthly powers – Is 28-35
- In whom will you trust? – Is 36-39
- Yahweh is willing and able to judge and deliver through his Servant – Is 40-55
- End of warfare with Babylon and her idols – Is 40-48
- End of sin through the Servant’s sacrifice – Is 49-55
- Yahweh’s deliverance brings a new world through his Conqueror – Is 56-66
I have benefitted much from commentaries on Isaiah by Alec Motyer and Andrew Abernethy (affiliate links). My work above is deeply influenced by their insights.
For more interpretive walkthroughs of books of the Bible, click here.
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